Genre Studies: The African-American Situation Comedy, Part 5

I am now going to conduct an analysis of 3 texts as part of my genre analysis on sitcoms and through these findings, I will determine whether or not each text conforms to the sitcom genre, and those that do, how well do the aspects of the sitcom correlate to the conventions of the multi-camera situation comedy. 

The 3 sitcoms I have chosen are: The Jamie Foxx Show, The Jeffersons and The Fresh Prince of Bel Air.  

In addition to this, the analysis of each of these shows will also answer the following question: 

*To what extent does genre theory, African-American experiences and identity, and sitcom humour contribute towards one's understanding of Black sitcoms and the underlining themes, plot- lines that are explored and addressed within the shows themselves? 

In order to answer these questions, I will be using representation analysis to study these texts and to decipher cultural and social ideas, meanings. 


Genre theory -

Genre theory is used to study films and on-screen media, to help facilitate the categorisation of the text. Genres are dependent on a number of factors: the storyline, the director behind the production, the intended target audience it is aimed at. Genre theory focuses on 3 ideas: audience, time period and marketing (Genre Theory). 


Audience - The intended audience for Black sitcoms is African-Americans & Black people outside the U.S. Black sitcoms from the 1950s were created to appeal to the Black demographic. 

The time period - In spite of African-Americans most successful decade on US mainstream television being the 1990s, its origins go as far as the 1950s and 1960s with the likes of Amos 'n' Andy & Julia. Shows were shot with a multi- camera, & the pacing of sitcoms were much more fluid and technology improved greatly that it allowed for continuity. 

Marketing of shows - Genres have become 'logos' of which movies and shows were marked and categorized for people to see. TV channels solely dedicated to sitcoms are an example of this marketing. Sitcoms are marketed through print and TV advertisements, trailers and promos.

As an audience and generally, we as individuals, do not differentiate between TV shows that place in one city or area, such as New York or Boston and those in Chicago. We don't normally identify programmes based on their geographical location. But we do differentiate shows in accordance to their actual setting. Be it an office, hospital, the home or at school (Mittel, 173). These texts contain many different components, but only some of these relate to their generic properties. Likewise, hospital dramas such as Grey's Anatomy and ER's components that infer to the hospital medical drama sub-genre are things like the hospital beds, doctors, nurses, stethoscopes, hospitals, medical instruments & cures used to treat and heal patients. 

Texts i.e. names of TV programmes themselves are not genres, but they are a member of a generic catagory. The Generic category being the 'genre'. Texts exist but only through production (i.e Hollywood, the main network in charge) and reception (the audience). Multi-camera sitcoms involve both the audience's participation (through laughing along with the jokes, canned laughter) and the TV stations televising the show to millions of people at home. Without production and reception, texts would cease to exist in the first place. 

For Mittel, the main aim of studying media genres from a media and cultural studies context, is rather than making assumptions and assertions about a particular genre they are referring to, to instead understand how genres operate within specific instances and their own framework, and how they fit into larger systems of cultural power (Mittel, 176). How does the genre, and the texts representing that genre, work in constituting our vision of the world and the events that take place in that world? 

Like I mentioned in the first part of this essay, genres all have specific ways of telling stories to the audience and in conveying them using their own sets of conventions. You can have 2 different genres: one Western and one Comedy and both texts representing these genres can have the same social, moral, cultural themes and narrative/plot. Heck, you can have a Western movie that has a story, and a comedy movie with exactly the same story. What distinguishes them from each other, is the conventions and iconography. 


The Situation Comedy 

The term, situation comedy, takes its name from properly Semiotic features of texts to which the expression is applied, but is better defined through technical traits of textual production which avoids the tautologies hidden in any definition of comedy (Savorelli, 132). In other words, the sitcom differentiates itself from other forms of comedy by means of the use of text and dialogue, music, actors and performers, props and scenery, production and narrative and story.  

The problem with representation in any given media product or genre, is that is it is never 100% fully accurate. It always involves a construction of a version of reality, not of reality itself. Media producers decide to what to put in, what to leave out. Representation is about someone's own point of view of the person, place, thing - the people who make the TV show, movie; this is their perception, their image of what it is, but that view does not necessarily mean it is fixed or fully accurate (Media Knowall). 

- conventions/iconography (elements that make up visual aspects of text, westerns; desert, horses, cowboy hats) 

In general, Iconography is difficult to spot in sitcoms, given as it doesn't make use of props and visual elements that can be easily found in Westerns & Science Fiction, for example. Strings (short pieces of music linked to scenes) & incidental music that signals generic intent. The classic form of sitcom is shooting the 3 headed monster, aka the multi- camera sitcom (Putterman, 1995) developed by Karl Freund for 'I Love Lucy'. Freund used 3 cameras to establish a scene between 2 characters. The first being a wide- shot, the other being mid-shots of each performer. The shots allowed for quick editing between 2 actors in any given verbal/conversation-based scene (Mills, 39). 

The Jeffersons 

History and origins - The Jeffersons is a 1970s spin-off of the show, All in The Family created by Norman Lear. In contrast, the series is much more comedic in tone than its predecessor. George Jeffersons utters the word 'Honky' several times, as well as the 'N' word. The Jeffersons is one of the longest running sitcoms in U.S TV history with 11 seasons. The show focuses on affluent couple, George and Louise Jefferson who live in New York City & their relationships with their neighbours, interracial couple, Helen and Tom Willis, Mr Bentley, son Lionel and his wife, Jenny, who is the daughter of the Willis's. Other characters who have played a significant role during the series are Florence Johnston (the Jeffersons's maid), Mr Harry Bentley from England, Ralph the Doorman & George's mother, Mother Jefferson. Compared to many of Norman Lears's other sitcoms, The Jeffersons evolved more into a traditional sitcom, as opposed to relying on political story-lines or dialogue. It tackled issues such as racism, suicide, gun control laws (The Jeffersons- Wikipedia). 

Synopsis/plot of the show - Louise, George and Lionel bid farewell to the Bunkers as they moved from the working-class area of Queens, New York into a luxury Manhattan apartment. 

Conventions and Iconography used in the sitcom - the apartment, the sofa, TV, table, living room, kitchen. 

• representational analysis of The Jeffersons 

Louise comes across as sweet, gentle and polite, whilst George can be loud, confrontational and rather rude, especially to this neighbours, the Willises. The Willises are an interracial couple; White husband Tom and Black wife, Helen. They prove that it doesn't matter what colour a person's skin is, as long as you love them that is all that matters. Louise gets on well with the Willis's, unlike George who makes fun of them and even calls Tom words such as 'honkey' and Tom and Helen, 'zebra'. A zebra is a Black and White horse-like animal with stripes, hence the name zebra. Florence Johnson is a no-nonsense maid, who is deeply religious, and yet gets into slanging matches with George. Mr Bentley is a polite guy from England, who pays a visit to the Jefferson's apartment from time to time. He tends to show up, so he can borrow something from the kitchen to make dinner with. Ralph the doorman visits The Jeffersons, mostly to expect a financial bribe for his deeds. It was the first sitcom to portray a successful black, affluent family in Lionel, George and Louise Jefferson. It was also the first show to predominately feature an interracial couple, Tom and Helen Willis. Using a cast of characters with colourful personalities, The Jeffersons was a humourous social commentary about race and racism in the United States of America, in the 1970s (Danielle Cadet, 2012). 

Its use of humour was witty and inviting -yet confrontational also. Along with social issues that got America talking, the show eased racial, cultural and in the long run, social perspectives being discussed on U.S TV. 

And this was before The Cosby Show and A Different World came along; The Jeffersons invited mainstream audiences the opportunity to see Black culture and African-American experiences on television.  

It was a sitcom that dared to discuss about Ethnicity and racism experienced by the African-American community in a frank way. It made it acceptable to talk about race openly, as long as you weren't being racist or a bigot, by talking of one's social, cultural and personal experiences. At the same time, its funny script and dialogue made the audience laugh. But it also showed to people that although money can buy you class, material things, you can't ignore and dismiss your African-American and Black roots, as a person. 

The Jamie Foxx Show

History and origins -  aired in 1996 up to 2001 on the WB (Warner Bros) Network for 5 seasons. The show was originally piloted for ABC in 1995 but was later picked up by the WB a year later. 

Synopsis/plot of the show - Jamie King (played by Jamie Foxx) is an aspiring actor from Texas, who arrives in Los Angeles, California to pursue a career in the entertainment business. 

- conventions/iconography used in the sitcom - Hotel, workplace sitcom, hotel reception, work employees, sofa, lift

• Representational analysis of The Jamie Foxx Show 

Jamie King is a would-be actor, who dreams of being famous and ending up in Hollywood. In the meantime, he works at his aunt and uncle's hotel, the King's Tower in Los Angeles to support himself, financially. He occasionally cracks jokes at Braxton's expense, flirts with Fancy and even attempts to court her, whenever she has a new boyfriend. Braxton P. Hartnabrig is a representation of the bourgeois elite; he has a stuffed -shirt attitude that Carlton Banks of The Fresh Prince of Bel Air would be most impressed by. He appears well-educated, well -spoken and doesn't use ebonics when he speaks. Braxton even got a few digs at Jamie during the latter seasons. Francesca 'Fancy' Munroe is one of 2 female characters on the show; she is attractive, smart and confident.  She doesn't take nonsense from nobody, but at the same time she is considerate, charming and graceful. Helen and Junior King are Jamie's aunt and uncle, who own the hotel. 

The Jamie Foxx Show takes place in a hotel, where Jamie works for the first 3 seasons. During seasons 4 and 5 he works at Jingles 2000 as a jingle writer, after failing to land a promotion at the King's Tower. The sitcom revolves around Jamie trying to earn a living whilst working as an employee at the hotel. Unlike the other characters, Jamie has fun and acts a fool, whilst Braxton, Fancy, Helen and Junior are taking their jobs seriously. Well, apart from Junior King, who occasionally enjoys cracking a joke or two with Helen.  

As the show progresses, the show's direction takes a turn as the latter 3 seasons focuses on Jamie and Fancy's relationship and the consummation of that relationship, after their transition from work colleagues, to friends then lovers. 

The Fresh Prince of Bel Air 

History and origins - Will Smith was a popular and successful rapper during the late 1980s, but he spent his money freely and underpaid his income taxes. The IRS fined Will $2.8 million, seizing most of his belongings, thus affecting his income. Resultantly, he was almost bankrupt, until in 1989 when US TV network, NBC approached Will who signed him to a contract and created a sitcom focused around him (The Fresh Prince of Bel Air - Wikipedia).

Synopsis/plot of the show - Will Smith (as himself) is a street-smart teenager from West Philadelphia, who moves to Bel Air to live with his Aunt Vivian, Uncle Phil in their wealthy mansion. Thus, this leads to his lifestyle clashing with that of his younger relatives, Hilary, Carlton, though in the earlier seasons, Will seeks solace in cousin Ashley. 

- conventions/iconography used in the sitcom - mansion, sofa, lamp shade, TV, dining room, living room, butler Geoffery to symbolise the Bank's social class and the fact they are wealthy enough to afford a butler. 

• representational analysis of The Fresh Prince of Bel Air

Will is a young, edgy, streetwise teenager from Philadelphia. He acts silly, jokes around and often makes fun of Uncle Phil over his weight and physical appearance, which he doesn't take too lightly. Philip Banks is Will's uncle and husband to Vivian Banks. He works in the legal justice system by presiding as a judge. He is strict, authoritarian but has a soft side to his character, calm, caring. His anger is the wrath and fear of many, especially when he is being mocked, and is particularly felt by his children, Carlton, Ashley and Hilary, as well as Will. Vivian is Philip's wife and ex-teacher. 

During the first 3 seasons, Vivian was portrayed as a tough-talking, strong-minded and career-minded woman, who wasn't always co-dependant on Philip but was supportive of his decisions. By season 4 onwards, the casting change for the Vivian character meant she had to be re-written as a 'home-maker', who showed reluctance towards her husband's career ambitions and plans. She tended to side with the kids, even when they did something wrong, whereas in seasons 1-3, she would tell them off. 

Carlton is Will's cousin, who abides by Republican ideals. This, along with his bourgeois, often uptight attitude had him at odds with Will. He doesn't listen to rap and RnB, preferring music such as Tom Jones, & is well-educated. 

Hilary is Will's attractive -yet less intelligent & rather pretentious & spoilt cousin. She is very much the equivalent to the stereotypical White female, Blonde bimbo, who say words such as 'whatever' and who speaks before she thinks. Hilary and Carlton were created to dispel the idea that only highly & less- educated White males and females could behave and act that way, and were counter- representations, associated with Black people. 

Ashley is the youngest child of the Banks household, and as such, Phil would be very protective of her and show concern with regards to the situations she finds herself in. Will's arrival in Bel Air had made an impact, and as a result she become somewhat rebellious and not being like her older siblings. She was the more sympathetic and understanding out of all the Banks members towards Will. Both Ashley and Hilary pursue entertainment careers in the latter seasons; Ashley becomes a singer, whilst Hilary moves to New York along with the family, as her talk show moves from Los Angeles to the Big Apple. 

Geoffrey is the sarcastic butler from London, UK. He sees himself as working-class, despite speaking the Queen's English and being in a relationship with a rich woman. His sarcasm is exemplified when he comments on Phil's size, his low wage, Will's silliness and the family, who being affluent, are lazy (The Fresh Prince of Bel Air- Wikipedia). 

The Fresh Prince of Bel Air, along with NBC's The Cosby Show attained a high multi-racial viewership, because despite these shows having a primary Black cast, the values and social themes they were evoking in the shows themselves, were universal to everyone. Not just to African-Americans and Black people of other countries, but to Whites, Asians, Latinos etc. 

The commonalities shared between the shows

The Fresh Prince of Bel Air and The Jeffersons seem to share a lot in common, more-so than with The Jamie Foxx Show. The first 2 shows address the concept of being Black and wealthy, or be it in the Fresh Prince's case a working- class kid born and bred in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania living with his family, as well as class. The supporting characters play a bigger role in the advancement of the series, whereas The Jamie Foxx Show concentrates on Jamie King and his dreams of stardom in Hollywood, whilst working at his aunt and uncle's hotel. At the same time, an on-going romantic sub-plot develops between Jamie and his female co-worker Fancy, known as Francesca Munroe. They fall in love and get together at the end of season 3 . 

It is a Cinderella - type love story that hinges on the 'will they, won't they become a couple' scenario. 

A 'will they/won't they?' occurs in film and television shows where 2 characters (generally, it is 1 male, 1 female), often at polar or binary opposite ends with each other through an unrequited relationship and with obvious unresolved sexual tension, resist entering into a full- blown romantic relationship together for a long time (Will They or Won't They? -TV Tropes). At first, they meet up as say, employees at work (perhaps get on one another's nerves), then over time, become friends (date other people), and afterwards, become lovers. In sitcoms, depending on the length of the show, this takes 3, 4 or 5 seasons for the relationship to be consummated. Additionally, in some respects, sitcoms with an on-going romantic sub-plot, can be seen as a romantic comedy. 

Usually, the 2 characters involved in the sitcom will be presented to the audience; once they are presented, we get to know more about them and understand them as individuals and their personalities. That XYZ 'they will become a couple' is the conclusion we root for. As fans of the couple, we are rooting them to get together. The only real doubt comes from the writers, who may believe otherwise and have other ideas, as to whom certain characters ought to be romantically involved with.  

The two main stars of The Fresh Prince of Bel Air and The Jamie Foxx Show, are Will Smith and Jamie Foxx. Before they starred in their respective shows, Will was a hip- hop rapper, whereas Jamie was on the Fox sketch series, In Living Color for 3 seasons until it ended in 1994. He starred in The Jamie Foxx Show in 1996. Both later advanced as performers and made the transition from television to Hollywood movies as actors. 

The Fresh Prince of Bel Air and The Jamie Foxx Show are similar, in the sense that the plot revolves around the younger relative moving in to live with their relatives. I.e., Will with uncle Philip and aunt Vivian Banks, Jamie with uncle Junior and aunt Helen King.  

The Jeffersons is one of the very few African-American sitcoms with supporting White characters; Ralph, Mr Bentley, Charlie, Tom Willis. All of whom are male. 



Genre Study and Why It Is Significant in the Cultural Study and Analysis of Black and African-American sitcoms  

The main disadvantages with genre theory and study, is that by analysing sitcom shows, though they are in many respects similar, they are also different. Different in that it has to continually re-define itself and having to change and adapt to modern times, in order to cater towards the current generation, technology, & to reflect social and political issues and ideas. 

Genre theory, Black experiences and identity & sitcom humour all contribute to ones understanding of Black sitcoms and the underlining themes and story-lines explored and addressed, by means of using sitcom conventions to highlight the ways in which African-American life and culture is depicted to audiences. Furthermore, it showcases how those characters resolve situations and the problems that arise out of it. 

African-American and Black sitcoms aren't just shows with Black characters, Black actors aimed at the Black demographic. They are not just called Black sitcoms because of those reasons; they are Black sitcoms, in terms of showcasing to the audience watching at home the Black experience in American society. They depict characters who work, who raise families, who have fun, who are happy and of whom fall in love. Things that White characters on other sitcoms, TV shows and in real life do, as well. Therefore, one can say African-American sitcoms are a representation of the Black experience, not just of cultural and racial representation. 

Nicole E. Jackson states the Black sitcom is an important genre to investigate within the Black community, as Blacks consume situation comedies at a higher rate, in comparison to other TV genres (Abrams), not to mention they are particularly attentive towards programming that is aimed at the African-American audience (Representing Black Authenticity, 73). 

I agree with these statement; however, it is of note to mention that whilst African-Americans are incredibly attentive to shows that are aimed at the African-American audience, they are also immensely wary of the negative stereotypes and screen representations that demean and ridicule their own community, whilst eliciting and reinforcing implied racist connotations and ideals through other notable television genres, such as dramas and reality TV. These of which are brought on by ignorance and the sheer lack of education and knowledge. 

It is important, therefore, to understand that positive representations of Blacks and African Americans is stressed more often than ever, but that through the sitcom genre, we continue to turn to and resort to Black sitcoms that a) are truly almost representative of the African-American community and b) they depict characters that the audience can either look up to, or sitcoms that have wholesome stories and plots viewers can take inspiration from. 


Conclusion

For TV producers and networks, genres are extremely important in media production because programme makers will continue to produce and create more shows for that genre to meet audience demand and interest for it. With sitcoms, many of them all operate in terms of binary oppositions, which help highlight the narrative structures found in television genres. More genres mean more choice, more options but as equally important, more ways to tell stories through its own set of conventions and iconography. 

Genre theory is one of the number of key concepts in media and film studies. Its aim is to study the history and origins, in addition to the codes, conventions and iconography of that genre, whilst emphasising the purpose as to why it exists and how those conventions and iconography is applied to attract audiences. 

Out of instinct, we do not identify and point out what those shows are in terms of their location or its setting, i.e.. the hospital, police force, magazine company. Rather we identify programmes according to their iconography such as the props used, home/work environment, family/workplace sitcom for instance. Henceforth, this is one of the aims of genre theory itself.

Sitcom characters are created and operated in terms of binary oppositions, for the purpose of demonstrating and signifying their different character traits, behaviourisms and attitudes within their own social context or setting. It also helps to identify key themes addressed in those shows. 

African-American and Black sitcoms are not just called Black sitcoms for the sake of being Black sitcoms. They are what they are because they illustrate the Black experience, with regards to showing African-American characters behaving in certain ways and going about their lives and living them. But through the concept of comedy and humour. Plus, African-American audiences pay particular attention to programmes that contain characters of their own racial make-up and see their existence as something to which it indicates that they too can live the same lives as people of other ethnicities, just like Whites. 

As a final note, though whilst it is important to stress the positive nature of African-American and Black sitcoms and why they need to be shown on television, we need to take heed to the sitcoms, especially the likes of The Cosby Show and A Different World, that promote and illicit positive imagery of Blacks, that the African-American community will see as a future indicator towards their own personal successes and achievements in life. 

Sources:

• Will They or Won't They? - TV Tropes 
• The Sitcom, Brent Mills, Edinburgh Press, 2009 
• Media Knowall, GCSE Media Studies - Introduction to Representation, Karina Wilson, 2010 - 2012 
• Beyond the Sitcom: New Directions in American Comedy, Savorelli, Macfarland & Co Inc, 2010
• The Jeffersons: How Sherman Hemsley and the Sitcom Changed The Landscape of American Television - Huffington Post, Danielle Cadet, 2012 
• Genre Theory
• The Television Studies Reader, ed. Robert Clyde Allen, Annette Hill, Routledge, 2003
• Interpreting Tyler Perry: Perspectives on Race, Class, Gender, and Sexuality, Routledge, 2013  
• The Fresh Prince of Bel Air - Wikipedia 
• The Jamie Foxx Show - Wikipedia 
• The Jeffersons - Wikipedia 

Genre Studies: The African-American Situation Comedy, Part 4

Analysing Genres

Genres, as a concept, are important in terms of media production. Producers rely on current or already established genre formulas in order to reduce the risk of producing texts, audiences do not wish to consume. If people enjoy watching TV programmes of one genre, the networks/station will continue to produce and develop more and more similar programmes to meet audience demands.  

In film and television studies, genres are recognizable for their recurring iconography, codes and conventions, as well as plot-lines, story-lines. Henceforth, Genre studies falls into the category of typo- logical studies of media. For Jane Stokes, typo-logical studies is classifying content according to specific types, be it genre, auteur or star' (Stokes, 121). 

Jason Mittel once said that many genres scholars have noted that there is no actual set criteria for defining genres. Genres are defined by setting (Westerns, Science Fiction), actions (crime shows), audience effect (sitcoms), narrative (dramas) (173). I'd dispute this claim by insisting that some genres, such as sitcoms, are defined through a number of genre conventions. Likewise, its settings/location (the plot's setting), character actions, audience effect (sitcoms purpose is to make people laugh and smile) and narrative. As opposed to just one criteria, which is audience effect. 

The medium of television works, in order to shape our own social realities by evoking and visually presenting these images and ideas on air. We then decide whether or not to accept them or reject them completely. 

In accordance to Mittel, in the chapter A Cultural Approach to Television Genre Theory, there are 3 ways to analyse genres: definitional, interpretative and historical (176). Definitional means illustrating or explaining what the conventions and features the genre encompasses. Interpretative is interpreting the text and the genre and what ideas, concepts it conveys and evokes to the reader or viewer. Historical explores the origins of the genre & its initial development up to its present-day form. Each of these approaches utilize textual analysis.


Binary Oppositions & Its Usefulness In Evaluating Sitcom Ideas & Approaches

In sitcoms, it is all too easy to simplify character positions, because they are fictional characters, not real-life ones. Therefore, these can't be deemed 'realistic' (Bignell, 100). 
If they were realistic, then they wouldn't be and can't be compared to each other because otherwise, they'd be too similar and alas, there wouldn't be much else to talk about. Sitcom characters are created for the purpose of demonstrating and displaying the differences in character traits, behaviourisms & attitudes, within their own social context or setting. And in addition towards their fellow characters on the show. Particularly during situations arising out of conflict & disagreement. The concept of binary oppositions allows for oppositions, comparisons of people and other themes to be made. 

Binary oppositions highlight the narrative structures found in the genres of many television programmes and movies (Orlebar, Bignell, 101). 

A thorough reading of sitcoms in textual analysis focuses on the relationship between binary oppositions such as male/female, young/old, rich/poor, optimistic/pessimistic. It often tends to be the case where one opposition, or idea in relation to a particular context, is perceived to be superior than the other and vice-versa (Understanding Binary Oppositions). 

In most multi-camera sitcoms, these shows and characters all operate in terms of binary opposites and connections. Sitcom characters vary in degree, personality, looks, social status, age etc and because of these social categories, these qualities are compared and contrasted with each other. These oppositions and connections act as a series of opposing values and ideas/concepts, which identify the key elements and themes addressed in television multi -camera sitcoms. The humour in sitcoms is mostly derived from these binary values and ideas within the characters by aligning or putting them next to one another (Orlebar, Bignell,101). 

It is only through their ideas and values meeting together in the middle that distinctions are made between the 2 oppositions. 

Below is an example of how to apply Vladimir Propp's Binary Oppositions model when analysing heroes and villains in fairy tale movies. 

As an illustration, in A Different World, we have Dwayne Wade and Whitley Gilbert: their binarisms would be male/female, geek/beauty, ditzy, city guy/country girl. Another example would be Bourgeois/adventurous, upper-class/working-class & serious/fun-loving, as exemplified by Carlton Banks & Will Smith in The Fresh Prince of Bel Air and Braxton and Jamie King in The Jamie Foxx Show.  

Will Smith - The Fresh Prince of Bel Air (NBC, 1990-1996) 

The Jamie Foxx Show (Warner Bros Network, 1996 - 2001)


TV sitcoms work in shaping our own media experiences by means of watching people behave in different ways in the context of comedy, humour and plot & narration. Like other forms of mass entertainment and media genres, sitcoms tell stories through its own set of conventions & ways towards its audience. 

(continued in part 5....)


Sources: 

• Communication, Cultural and Media Studies: The Key Concepts, John Hartley, Routledge, 2011
• Media Studies: The Essential Resource, Sarah Casey Benyahia, Abigail Gardner, Phillip Rayner and Peter Wall, Routledge, 2013 
• An Introduction to Television Studies, 3rd Edition, Jonathan Bignell, Routledge, 2012 
• The Television Handbook (Media Practice), Jeremy Orlebar, Jonathan Bignell, Routledge, 2011 
• How To Do Media and Cultural Studies 2nd Edition, Jane Stokes, Sage, 2012
• The Television Studies Reader, ed. Robert Clyde Allen, Annette Hill, Routledge, 2003 
• Understanding Binary Oppositions

Genre Studies: The African American Situation Comedy, part 3

The 90s 

.... continued from last entry 

The vast majority of sitcoms of the 1990s on the 4 major networks, took place in urban, as opposed to suburban environments that featured young professionals or dysfunctional nuclear families (Morreale, 249). 1990s and 2000s Sitcoms reflected attempts to appeal towards a younger demographic, whilst the introduction of digital cable, satellite TV and the internet offered more options to watch programmes, thus eroding the traditional TV (Morreale, 247). 

Genres can provide positive role models for their target audience. As audiences tend to select a limited number of genres, the characters behaviors could be construed as primary sources of modeling. Author Mark Bennett says that we ought to find our inner TV character by looking at the way TV characters handle their problems (Silverblatt,13). 

Television comedy, particularly sitcoms, require continuous anticipation, as well as participation gaze. They ask us to constantly look & to look forward to enjoy the latest episode and to be prepared for next week's episode. All whilst we sit through 2 or 3 mins worth of TV adverts. Sitcoms engage the viewers in seeing life and situations unfold in the present day, all within the the narrative/plot (Kolker, 186). Additionally, over time, sitcoms also engage the viewer in seeing characters develop and change for the greater good; not to mention to see them find love with other characters. & more specifically, with characters that have been close friends, throughout much of the duration of the series. 


Race and Sitcoms 

Race is often linked to the underclass, more specifically, the working poor. Correlations between the concept of race or ethnicity in television are related to class failures and lack of upward social mobility (Means Coleman, 79 et al Dimes, Humez). Alas, being Caucasian/White implies success and happiness, whilst being Black/Latino infers to being poor & of lesser significance and importance to Asians, Whites. 

The issue of class in African-American and Black sitcoms tied to ethnicity raises the question as to how the African-American population actually see themselves, in relation to the characters in Black sitcoms. Do they agree with those representations and accept them as 'definitive' and fixed..... or do they completely shun them, yet enjoy the programme as nothing more than a form of mass entertainment?

For Lonette, J.C and Freddie, class is a cultural yardstick that has been overlooked as a signifier for blackness, rather than by material wealth. They cited The Jeffersons and The Fresh Prince of Bel Air, acknowledging that having assimilated into wealth and prosperity, -concepts that are usually associated with Whites -, it does not mean leaving behind or neglecting your cultural 'connectedness' stemmed in music, food, dance, religion, history (81, Means Coleman). These are cultural indicators of ethnicity, but also of self - identity. George and Louise Jefferson and Philip and Vivian Banks may live in a state-of-the art New York apartment and large mansion in Bel Air, Los Angeles, California..... yet at the same time, as African-Americans and Black people, they always remind themselves of their roots & how racism and discrimination, for example, impacts them during their personal and daily lives. 

Part of Black situation comedy's existence is as a genre, it makes a point at attending to Black moral, political, cultural, social & economic issues & needs (86, Means Coleman). Black sitcoms are a statement of African -Americans own ideologies and intentions, their outlook on society, of their dreams and aspirations, whilst eliciting positive imagery of people of color on screen. 

In the next chapter of this essay, I will be analyzing 3 African- American shows from the 1970s to early 2000 & applying genre analysis concepts and discussing the range of themes and issues, as well as meanings and ideas that are being evoked in these sitcoms. 

Sources:

• Genre Studies in Mass Media: A Handbook, Art Silverblatt, M.E Sharpe, 2007
• Critiquing the sitcom: A Reader, ed by Joanne Morreale, Syracuse University Press, 2002 
• Media Studies: An Introduction, Robert Kolker, Wiley-Blackwell, 2009 
• Gender, Race and Class in Media: A Text- reader ed by Gail Dines, Jean M. Humez et al Robin Means Coleman, SAGE Publications Inc, 2002 

Genre Studies: The African - American Situation Comedy, part 2

The Black sitcom 

Blacks have appeared in the situation comedy genre, moreso than any other TV genre. U.S networks & Cable broadcasters have aired approximately 800 sitcoms since 1947 - 184 of them feature African-Americans, either in starring, co-starring, supporting or transient roles (Nelson via Kamalipour, Carilli, 79). 

Angela Mason argues that Black sitcoms are Black, but out of exhibiting a Black philosophy on life. They are called Black sitcoms because a) the actors on it are Black and b), their characters deal with comedy-based situations from a Black perspective (Mason via Kamalipour, Carilli, 80). As well as this, Race-specific issues unique to African-Americans culture, life, history through racism for instance, are also explored.

African- American sitcom's roots trace back to Amos 'N' Andy. However, the negative stereotypes perpetuated were laughed at and thus, the show was cancelled. Premiering in 1968, Julia was the first Black female sitcom & the first Black sitcom star in a show about a professional woman (Fearn-Banks, 401). 

Whilst Huxtable-type families had not reached the TV screen, Sanford and Son, The Jeffersons & Julia, were accepted by the mainstream (Hillard, Keith, 232).

Television executives attempted to explore different aspects of African-American Life. Firstly, with working-class families, such as Good Times, That's My Mama and What's Happening!! (Smith-Shomade, 15). 

From 1972 to 1983, Black sitcoms sought to address the social and political experiences of America, thanks in part to Norman Lear. Lear helped dispel the idea that situation comedy couldn't be anything but superficial and silly. From abortion, drugs, homosexuality, racism to discrimination, shows such as The Jeffersons and Good Times all advertedly pointed towards inequality and Black empowerment. It was from then on, that for the first time, Black situation comedy portrayed Blacks being subjectified, - not objectified. That they were not token characters to Whites & the USA saw on TV characters that were contributing, surviving, succeeding in society, without abandoning their culture (Means Coleman, Mcllwain,130). 

Nonetheless, with Good Times and The Jeffersons, Lear presented 2 contrasting ends of the spectrum with regards to Black representation: at one end was the Evans family in Good Times, who were perceived as being of lower-class, poor, whose kids had ambitions that were far beyond any one's expectations. Michael wanted to be a Lawyer, J.J an artist and Thelma a dancer. Meanwhile, The Jeffersons Black representation came in the form of George Jefferson, who successfully owns a chain of dry cleaning businesses in New York, whereas wife Louise worked at the local help centre in town.

By the late 1970s to 1980s, despite the social issues addressed in shows such as Good Times, The Jeffersons, there was a concern that Blackness and African-Americans were to be nothing more than token victims rescued by White characters. Coleman and Mcllwain argued that in Diff'rent Strokes and Webster, through Black child characters Webster and Arnold, the context of being Black whilst living in a Black environment was seen as a negative, but with Black child characters living in a White environment and raised by a White family, it was seen as being positive (Means Coleman, Mcllwain, 132). 

I disagree with this argument; shows such as Webster and Diff'rent Strokes illustrate and highlight issues surrounding child adoption and that with families, in particular, adopting children outside of their race, many parent/s adopt Black kids, Asian kids, Hispanic kids. Not because so that they feel pity towards them and their unfortunate circumstances that may have resulted in their upbringing and being abandoned by their natural parents. I would argue it is not because that they see the Black kids as being inferior, whilst the white adult is seen as superior. But because in most cases, many White families choose to adapt children outside of their race, because, a) they love them, b) they really want to help and c) they want to give them a better head start in life.

They don't see children for their colour. Their ethnicity, if anything to them is irrelevant. They love them, as much as they do of their own children. Therefore, the assertion by Means and Coleman that White parents who adopt Black kids out of kindness, sincerity & love, are doing a disservice to the Black children's well-being and identity & thus, making them abandon their cultural roots, is for me, disagreeable . 

Critics have pointed out that many African-American sitcoms have continuously portrayed African-Americans and Black culture in a problematic light. Yet for Black sitcoms that have found their own audiences & established their own fan bases, these audiences have identified themselves with those characters & their cultural expressions (Carney Smith, 1377). Sitcoms have provided people hours of entertainment and laughter, but also, more importantly, shared and relevant cultural experiences, which are discussed amongst themselves and with others.


The 80s

From the 1980s to late 1990s, many Black TV shows resisted the traditional sitcom format of having 1 joke, per page by crafting and devising dramatic episodes.

The arrivals of The Cosby Show and A Different World both heralded a new chapter for the African- American sitcom genre during the 1980s. The shows set a standard in eliminating barriers for 'coloured' people, especially actors on screen and negative stereotypes of Blacks on U.S mainstream television. They presented Black people as intellectuals, occupying higher positions of power, of young Black people going to college and doing well in their studies. In spite of these shows set, in what many would perceive to be based in a White context and environment, they were, nonetheless, still Black shows & alas, Black sitcoms.

Resultingly, The Cosby Show's accomplishments helped elevate NBC to first place, ahead of its rivals in the network ratings for 6 straight years (391, Edgerton). TV industry insiders credit the programme for resurrecting the sitcom genre, for which at the time, many people thought was dead. The Cosby Show also topped the ratings charts throughout the world, in places such as Canada, Australia & the UK.

The Cosby Show and A Different World accomplishments in America, set standards for other African-American sitcom predecessors to emulate and follow suit, though with relatively little success.

Smith- Shomade proposes that The Cosby Show is similar to Fox's Living Single (1993), with creator Yvette Lee Bowser's characters having what she calls 'Afrocentric markers' (Smith-Shomade, 57). The female characters Synclaire, Khadijah, Maxine and Regine live in a New York apartment block with Black-specific artwork, whereas the guys, Kyle and Overton share another apartment. More importantly, Shomade also cites that in Living Single, because the idea of seeing successful working-class, mid-early 30s women, had not been fully realised before, especially on television, the audience sees the importance, first-hand, of a good first impression for each of these characters. For Living Single, material success, through earning a good living and working, was central to the plot of, as well as the success of the show.

The 1990s 

For what it's worth, although The Jeffersons and The Cosby Show were 2 of the biggest Black sitcoms of the 1970s and 1980s, African-American sitcoms didn't really hit its peak, until a decade after The Cosby Show had ended. The most successful period and decade for African-American situation comedies (and White sitcoms, not forgetting), as well as the most busiest, was the 1990s. Black sitcoms appeared in great numbers both on Cable and nationally as well, but more-so nationally. The big four of NBC, Fox, CBS, ABC established a foothold in the sitcom market, with shows such as The Fresh Prince of Bel Air, A Different World, Martin and Living Single drawing in millions each week (Poussaint). With the latter 2 shows on Fox, doing incredibly well.

The wave of Black sitcoms during 1990-1999 celebrated post-racial America, defined by personal responsibility, progress and choice (115, J Leonard). J Leonard argues that although many of these other 90s sitcoms were by no means as successful as The Cosby Show, A Different World and The Jeffersons, by taking race and ethnicity out of the equation, these shows would have denied the existence of racism endured by the Black middle-classes.

With A Different World's success, this was unrealised until Debbie Allen got involved and turned around the fortunes of the series by revamping the show's format. By the time it addressed serious social and political issues, the sitcom began to evolve and improve; explosive story lines involving HIV/Aids, racism, inter-racial relationships, prejudice. Subject matters that today's African-American sitcoms and shows seem to ignore, in favour of buffoonery, indecent images of Black cultural appropriation, and sex.

(continued in part 3....)


Sources:

• The Sitcom Reader: America Viewed and Skewed, Mary M Dalton ed., State University of New York Press, 2005 
• The A to Z of African-American Television, Kathleen Fearn Banks, Scarecrow Press, 2009
• The Broadcast Century and Beyond, Robert L Hillard, Michael C. Keith, Focal Press, 2010
• Cultural Diversity and the U.S Media, ed. Yahya R. Kamalipour, Theresa Carilli ed.,1998
• Encyclopedia of African American Popular Culture, Jessie Carney Smith, State University of New York Press, 1998
• Why is TV So Segregated?, Alvin Poussaint, 2010. 
• The Columbia History of American Television, Gary Edgerton, Columbia University Press, 2009
• Shaded Lives: African-American Women and Television, Beretta E.Smith- Shomade, Rutgers University Press, 2002
• African-Americans on Television: Race-ing For Ratings, ed. by David J Leonard, Lisa Guerrero, Praeger, 2013
• Color by Fox: The Fox Network & The Revolution in Black Television, Kristel Brent Zook, Oxford University Press, 1999 

Genre Studies: The African - American Situation Comedy, part 1

Genre plays a crucial role in examining audience and consumers tastes and interests in a range of media products; thus determining how they behave, as well as the media and entertainment industries recognizing what their needs and wants are & to serve those interests. As consumers ourselves, we can easily search for and establish our favourite genres. Online sites such as Amazon, Play.com have specialist categories where we can find different products and items. 

In a way, having genres makes life easier for us because instead of us physically assigning texts, such as TV shows, movies, music into categories, genres do that for us. And because we recognize and learn about the conventions of that genre, it means that in turn, we appreciate and understand it more (Barker, Wall, 75). 


What is 'Genre?'

A genre simply means 'order', a type, class or category of presentation that shares distinctive and recognizable features. Examples of genres include comedy, drama, cartoons, science fiction and news. 

Genre is a concept used to classify or group media texts into different categories. Media texts belong to a genre, adapting codes and conventions and appealing to a variety of different audiences, hailing from every part of the world & consisting of different nationalities, Black, White, Asian, Latino, young and old, gay and straight. 

Because many media programmes belong to a particular genre, this genre acts as a portal through which the audience receives media messages. Each genre presents a view-world that shapes the ways we think about the world, the characters within that particular world (Silverbatt, 3). The themes and subject matters & issues may remain the same, but it is the way these are told and presented on-screen that makes it a 'genre' or type of programme. 

The concept of function in the study of genres refers to the purpose for creating & receiving media texts, addressing the following issues: 

- Why do media communicators, such as producers, TV networks, writers, directors, create and produce certain genres?

- In watching a reality show or sitcom, what purpose is being served?

- Why are we, as an audience, attracted to various and particular genres? Is it through taste and preference? the iconography such as costumes, props and objects that are used by actors? Or is it because it is the way they tell stories that makes us compelled to become a fan of that genre? 

- And lastly, by identifying its functions, i.e. what is the purpose of this genre and its existence in media and entertainment? Take Science Fiction; one could say the purpose of Science Fiction is to demonstrate what life is like, or could be like 200 years from now in the future. (5, Silverbatt) 


The Impact of Genre in TV

Feuer stated that institutional uses of genre has resulted in the advent of the remote control and multi-channel TV, leading to programmes being 'customized' and designed to attract an increasingly fragmented audience (1992, 57). At the same time, genre, has become important as an institutional indicator of the target audience and demographic.

Channels such as Comedy Central, BET, QVC and TV One showcase particular programming based on TV genres, whilst the proliferation of other Cable & Pay TV networks are structured around branding & marketing to niche audiences interested in genres such as sports, documentaries, home and lifestyle.

Neale says generic forms of the genre must develop and evolve to keep pace with audience interest, citing ER, Chicago Hope as examples (Devereux, 288). And thus, we should add Grey's Anatomy to this list as well.

Genre is important in terms of a) establishing an audience, b) certain people can develop their skills by working within that genre, i.e; choreography for a dance performance on television, c), stars associate themselves with that genre, i.e. Arnold Schwarzenegger, Sylvester Stallone, Bruce Willis are known for action movies and c) fans of that genre can easily identify the codes.

In the world of television, film and music, genre characteristics are used to create style and appeal, in order to attract particular audiences. One example of genre characteristic is that by taking a movie and breaking it down according to the genre styles it incorporates. In say Snow White and the 7 Dwarves, you have comedy (the dwarves being funny, silly), musical elements (Hi Ho, Hi Ho it's off to work we go), a bit of a thriller (Snow White eating the poisoned apple) & romance (Snow White and Prince Charming get together and fall in love) (14).

The African-American Sitcom

Robin Means Coleman cites that it remains a weekly series of self-contained episodes with its story-lines revolving around an umbrella plot, and centering upon a cast of characters (Coleman, 6). 

Black situation comedy is programming that employs a core cast of African- American or Black characters & focuses on their socio-cultural, political and economic experiences (Coleman and Mcllwain, 125). Black sitcoms follow the same formula, same construct, same genre conventions as White sitcoms on television; the only differences being the African-American characters and the use of Ebonics. Ebonics is a variety of English spoken by many African- Americans.

African - American situation comedies such as The Fresh Prince of Bel Air, Good Times & The Cosby Show, focus upon a main set of Black characters & their artistic, cultural, personal, social & economic experiences (Means Coleman, 8). Many of the earlier African-American sitcoms, as well as some of the 1990s Black sitcoms, were lambasted and criticized for using negative and stereotypical depictions of Blackness to promote humour. 

Cosby's representation of ethnicity and gender in shows A Different World and The Cosby Show, occurs in a challenging context. Black scholars draw on semiotic and mythic analysis to describe and prescribe the Black presence in the industries of White media (Bill Cosby and Recoding Ethnicity, Michael Real, 225 et al Joanne Morreale).

Real says the representation of Black ethnicity in The Cosby Show contrasts with traditional stereotypes; thus highlighting, coding and re-coding the concept of Blackness and what it represents, in a predominately White industry of the media today.

It is argued The Cosby Show's depiction of the Huxtable family is a continuation of the development of Blacks during the 1970s, 80s. However, whereas The Jeffersons, Benson, Diff'rent Strokes were set in a predominantly White world, the Huxtables were Black. The family were of Black, upper-middle class, living in Brooklyn, New York, & the show had no main or supporting White characters (The 80s: Black Like Whom? The Cosby Show and Frank's Place, 228, et al Boyd).

Ironically, the Cosby Show's series finale in 1992 ended at the same time when racial tensions in Los Angeles engulfed the Californian city (229, Boyd). The show presented an idealized notion of the Black upper-class experience of the American dream.

The success of the Cosby Show paved the way for a large number of nationally network & syndicated network- run Black sitcoms during the 1990s, which had more diverse (and positive) depictions of the African- American family. These shows led to more African-American personalities, making a name for themselves within the industry. The likes of Debbie Allen were a catalyst for the successful interpolation of Black programming into mainstream US television (Means Coleman, D. Mcllwan, 126) .

According to Taflinger, there are 3 distinct types of sitcom: actcom, domcom and dramedy: the actcom can be based on numerous themes, family, religion, occupations. The emphasis is on action, verbal and physical. Domcom has a wider variety of themes, events and is serious. It involves more people, such as the family. Examples include Roseanne and The Cosby Show and Good Times; sitcoms that predominately take place at home. Dramedy is not devoted to evoking laughter, emphasis is on presenting themes that are not humourous. Examples of dramedies include Ugly Betty and Everybody Hates Chris (Taflinger, 1996). 

In genre study and theory, the 3 main key concepts are Iconography, Codes and Conventions & audience. 


Iconography

Iconography or reoccurring images, such as props within film, is a key means of giving its genre its identity. Iconography is similar to Mise-en-Scene. Mise-en-Scene is a French film studies term meaning to 'put in the scene'. For example, the Iconography of a Western is cowboys, cowboy hats, saloons, horses, guns, sheriffs. It gives the genre its own identity and flavour. 


Codes and conventions 

When audiences familiarize themselves with the concepts of codes and conventions of that genre, it becomes easier for them to read the text, and seek ideas and points of view that other people unfamiliar with genre study, are unable to detect (Barker, Wall, 75). Like all media theories, at first it's difficult to understand, especially if you haven't studied media or film studies before, but once you read more into it, and think of ideas and examples and link them to that theory, it becomes easier. 

Codes - Signs are people, characters, places, colours, objects, words. A code is a system of signs. There are 2 types of codes: technical & symbolic. Technical refers to the equipment used during production of a show. A camera used during a shooting of a scene in a sitcom is a sign. Camera, director, actors, costumes, props, music. Symbolic codes refers to signs within the narrative or story considered as important or significant. I.e. tears streaming down a person's face may indicate sadness or sorrow. 

Conventions - Conventions are ways of doing something; set of rules that are more genre- specific. The conventions of the traditional sitcom are 30 mins long, it has a studio audience or canned laughter, has main and supporting characters, running jokes, a beginning, middle and end & irony/sarcasm (Codes & Conventions- Teaching Media Studies). 

A running joke or gag is an amusing situation, funny one-liner, character trait that appears throughout the series of the show. One of the best examples of a running joke, is during the Fresh Prince of Bel Air  where Will's friend Jazz, gets thrown out of the house by Uncle Phil. 

Audience - Audiences read and enjoy their media products differently, depending on their lifestyles, preferences, tastes and likes. They are organised into different groups, based on their finances & social circumstances and such by producers, advertisers and broadcasters and TV networks. These people then target their consumers, who have spending power, and bombard them with offers, product placements, TV and print ads (Teaching Media Studies). 


The Aim Of The Essay 

By using a range of examples from classic African-American sitcom shows, I will seek to highlight and address the social, political, cultural and ideological themes and concepts within African-American communities. Thus, probing these meanings associated with African-Americans & their experiences, through the medium of television and the sitcom genre. Additionally, this will prompt numerous questions; such as how they are portrayed in sitcoms, whether or not these character representations reflect or challenge the general consensus of African-Americans & their own cultural & racial identities. Finally, I will explain why nationally networked Black sitcoms are of cultural importance and significance to the Black viewer, in the face of growing reality TV & drama shows on the 4 main US networks, ABC, NBC, CBS, Fox. & why we need them to return to U.S national television. As well as examining what these sitcom representations say, notwithstanding American and Western society's ideas as to what Black and African-American cultures entails and pertains to. 

(to be continued in part 2....)


Sources: 

• On the Real Side: A History of African American Comedy from Slavery to Chris Rock, Mel Watkins
• Media Studies: The Essential Resource
• Media Studies: Key Issues and Debates, Eoin Devereux
• Critiquing the Sitcom: A Reader, ed. Joanne Morreale
• African Americans  & Popular Culture, ed. Todd Boyd
• African American Viewers & The Black Situation Comedy: Situating Racial Humour, Robin R. Means Coleman, 1998
• The Sitcom Reader: America Viewed and Skewed, Robin R. Means Coleman & Charlton D. Mcllwain, 2012
• Media Knowall: Genre Explained, Karina Wilson, 2013
• GCSE Media Studies for AQA, ed. Mandy Essen, Martin Phillips, Anne Riley
• Transparency Now: Situation Comedies and the Liberating Power of Sadism, Ken Sanes
• Sitcom: What It Is, How It Works, Richard F. Taflinger, 1996 
• Genre Studies in Mass Media: A Handbook, Art Silverbatt 
• Teaching Media studies: Codes and Conventions, TKI Media Studies 
• Teaching Media studies: Audiences, TKI Media Studies 
• As Media Studies: The Essential Revision Guide for AQA, Jo Barker, Peter Wall

The Semiotics of Nintendo's Advertising, Part 3: Nintendo's Ad Analysis

In the third and final part of this essay, I will seek to address the usefulness of Semiotics in analysing advertisements and the ways in which Nintendo have chosen these elements and ideas for their ads to a) create meaning and b) to persuade consumers to purchase their products. Through this, I will utilize and apply Semiotic terminology to my advertising examples and state the wider implications and cultural understandings of what Nintendo are trying to imply and decode their ideas and the hidden messages they are sending out to their readers and audience. 

Therefore, I have chosen 5 different adverts: 4 print ads and 1 TV ad. 

Triple Play

The first ad shows the NES, Super Nintendo and Gameboy systems on what looks like an outer space-like background. There appears to be light rays underneath the boxes. This denotes that it is giving the appearance that they are colliding towards each other, like 3 space ships. The caption, 'Triple Play' signifies that there are not only 3 ways of playing Nintendo games but that you have the choice to pick from the NES, Gameboy and Super Nintendo. The Triple Play logo is red in a Futura condensed extra bold normal -type font, which could denote Nintendo's trademark colour of Red, but also to highlight the Red on a Black background. 

The presentation of the poster is futuristic space -like. With space comes technology, computers and video games; therefore it has that feel to it.  

The official Nintendo seal of quality sign is made bigger than the consoles, thus connoting and emphasising how much more important it is to know that 'quality' is better than quantity. It could serve as anchorage in place of the normal Nintendo logo. 

The White anchorage says 'Nintendo gives you the power to choose. Classic power, Portable Power, Super Power.' Classic referring to and signifying the NES, Super Power refers to Super Nintendo and Portable Power denotes the Gameboy, being a portable system. The use of 'power' suggests that in the context of Nintendo and gaming, gaming is power. With power, you can use it to your advantage and to take control of the characters of the games you play. 

Starfox 

The second ad is an advert for Starfox for the Super Nintendo. Has a dark background with Red and Yellow text juxtaposed onto it. The font for the text looks like it is Arial Black. The caption is like a play on words.Chips as in computer chips that are found in computers, and Chips as in US terms potato chips or UK terms Chips as in chunky fries denoting food. 

Given the text is in Red, the red must be used to emphasise the significance of the Super FX chip, which is a first for a video game. The red text says 'One of these chips gives Starwing (Starwing being the other name for Starfox) the most exciting FX you've ever seen'. FX is an abbreviation of 'Effects', as in special effects. Now think about this; imagine replacing FX with 'taste' and seen with had. It would then read 'One of these chips gives Starwing the most exciting taste you've ever had'. If that was the case, then Starwing would be a brand name for fries, instead of a video game. It gives off the impression that it is selling fries or chips, a type of food product. 

The yellow text, 'the other one gives you spots' underneath a picture of a french fry, which is indexical, could denote that with fries and spots, if you eat too much fried food, you'd end up getting spots, as well as get fat and mouth ulcers. French fries is considered unhealthy and a part of fast food, which is cheap to sell and takes less preparation to cook. 

Underneath it, is a small box art of the game, Starfox with anchorage next to it. The small box art can also be seen as iconic, as it resembles what is being advertised and marketed to the consumer, which is video games. 

The signifier is the FX chip, the signified is the caption 'one of these chips....'

The bottom right-hand corner has the Red Super Nintendo logo denoting that this game can only be played on the Super Nintendo. 

Rhythm Heaven for Nintendo DS

This next advert shows pop star Beyonce playing Rhythm Paradise on the Nintendo DS console. The text looks foreign, though I'm guessing it must be German or some other European language. From her facial expression, she seems to be smiling, thus as a code and indexical code, is denoting that she enjoys playing the game and is having fun at the same time. 

Her dress code is very casual, that of a Grey tee-shirt and blue jeans that connotes her relaxed and calm expression, as she is happily playing on her DS. It also denotes the everyday clothes she wears at home when she is not working and having to look very glamorous on camera for the paparazzi and her fans. Her posture signifies how she might play portable video games at home with her legs folded 

The text at the top of the poster could connote Beyonce's hair colour or the background cover of the game box, which is very brown-ish looking. 

The fact that Beyonce was chosen to advertise this particular video game titled 'Rhythm Paradise', the game itself relies on rhythmic action and having a sense of rhythm and understanding the beat of the music playing. As she is a singer and a dancer and she is advertising a game that involves music and rhythm, using the stylus and tapping buttons in time to the beat of the song, it makes her appearance all the more appropriate really. Rhythm Paradise is a music-based video game. 

Beneath Beyonce are the screenshots of different mini-games included in the game, as well as diagrams of a hand holding a stylus, each one signifying how each game should be played. 

At the bottom of the poster is a picture of the game cover with anchorage next to it. On the bottom right-hand side, is the DS games console with stylus, thus denoting which system this game should be played on. 

Pepsi 

This one is more of a holiday promotion held by beverage company Pepsico promoting Pepsi and the Super Nintendo. Mario is dressed as Santa, wearing a Santa hat that has 'M' on it, with Yoshi as a reindeer. Yoshi signifies the reindeer, and his shape and form is reminiscent of a Reindeer.With Mario as Santa, his hat is a dress code and the concepts of Santa and Mario both illicit positive connotations. Santa brings happiness and joy to kids when he delivers presents to them at night when they are asleep, Mario as Santa is an Iconic sign, and like Santa he brings happiness and joy to children, but when they play Mario games. That feeling as a child of opening your presents on Christmas day in the morning and discovering you got a Nintendo Wii, 3DS, Wii U or Nintendo games as gifts, is very much like that. 

Games that are fun for all the family and do not contain violence. It's about fun and enjoyment. The M on his hat denotes 'Mario'. Mario is holding a yellow package, presumably with Super Nintendo written on it, we can presume he is delivering a Super Nintendo console as a present to a child. 

'Win a Super Nintendo Entertainment System' denotes and signifies it is a competition to win a SNES games console. The anchorage, 'Just in Time for the holidays' denotes that the competition takes place a week or so, before the week of Christmas Eve and Day. 

The colour code is mainly Red; Santa wears red, so does Mario along with his Blue overalls. The Red clothing of Mario's connotes Nintendo's trademark colour at the time, which used to be Red, in contrast to Sega's Blue and Sega's mascot, Sonic The Hedgehog, who is also blue. 

Mario and Yoshi's smiles are also a form of non-verbal code. 

Mario and Yoshi are signs emphasizing they are central to this promotion. The small house may connote the house that they left to drop off one of the presents. 

Wii

Here is the advert for the Wii home console that was released in 2006 in North America. It shows the Wii Remote in what looks like liquid rising upwards, and you can see the buttons on the controller. It then shows the D-pad, 3 circle buttons moving about. This denotes that Nintendo have taken a different approach to video games than they did before and are trying to do something that caters to everyone. It then switches to a hand and of a guy grabbing the remote. The way it is shot and edited gives off a sense of suspense. He uses it to play video games. The 2 people, the guy and the girl appear to be playing a game of tennis. Even though we don't see footage of a tennis game, we hear tennis sounds in the background. We then get footage of 2 guys - who look like they are chefs holding Wii remotes and using them as if they were knives to chop up food. It is assumed they are playing a cooking game.

An elderly couple is now shown, each one holding Wii remotes. Classical music is playing in the background. They are moving sideways, too -ing and fro-ing and holding the controller as if  it was a baton and they were conductors of an orchestra. Their appearance signifies Nintendo's aim to create and deliver a product that has mass market appeal, so that anyone, regardless of age, can pick up a Wii remote and play. It switches to a man who is sitting on a chair. He is holding 2 remotes, one in each hand, as if they were drumsticks and he was playing the drums with them. He is then wearing a black baseball cap, Blue shirt and uses the remote to swing it as if it was a bat and he was playing baseball.

A young boy and an elderly man, who appears to be his grandfather are playing a fishing game on the Wii. It is assumed that they connote the father and son bond of getting together and spending time over a particular past -time. which in this case is video games. Shot then switches to a bespectacled guy, who seems to be a dentist holding the remote and looking inside someones teeth. A young woman is lying on the couch with sound effects in the background. Sounds like she is playing New Super Mario Bros Wii. She moves the Green Wii remote up and down. Green is also a referent and the colour of  Super Mario Bros' Luigi's clothes. An image of the Wii nunchuk in milky liquid then appears, and is plugged into the back of the remote. A family, who look like they are having a party with birthday decorations on the wall, are playing a game with remotes. What this game is we do not know for certain. However, one may connote that it is polysemic; therefore, it could be Wii Party or some other party-type game. Shot switches to a guy lurking behind a chair, who then pops up and uses it like a gun to shoot enemies. He then sits down. It is assumed that he was playing a first-person shooter type game. A trio of girls, 2 Japanese/Asian, 1 Caucasian with the Caucasian holding the red Wii remote and of whom are trying to trap a fly. Another guy uses the remote as a sword. You can hear slicing sound effects in the background. The phone rings. He then presses the D-Pad to pause the game, so he can answer the phone.

We get a shot of a Wii remote and see that one of the lights is blue, signifying the game that he'd been playing is paused.

The Wii console is on a table alongside the nunchuk and Wii remote. Image fades. Then 'Coming 2006' appears, signifying the worldwide release date of the console. Then the advert fades and ends.


Conclusion:

Each of these 5 advertisements all have very different ways of selling the Nintendo brand to the consumer. I'd also like to point out that although Nintendo is a Japanese brand by nature and has Japanese and Asian cultural values, the characters of Nintendo, most of them are not Japanese, solely by origin or ethnicity. Legend of Zelda's Link, Samus from Metroid, Mario, Kirby, though were created by the likes of Shigeru Miyamoto, Masahiro Sakurai, Gunpei Yokoi, they each have personalities and images that are western- related that resonate with Nintendo fans, who aren't Japanese themselves. And that alone, is what makes Nintendo stand out from other so-called Japanese games developers, of whom some or most of their characters cater and appeal towards Japanese audiences, moreso than Western audiences.


Final Thoughts:

Semiotics, and the significance of Semiotics in advertising, is crucial in understanding how messages are read and perceived by us, and as to how the creators creation of that text input that message, in order to sell a particular product or service.

Semiotics operates on a level that is firstly denotative by means of seeing what is already presented in front of us and then explaining it, descriptively, and secondly connotative and implicit and hidden meanings that we ourselves interpret from the given image/text. It is about analysing images, signs, logos, symbols, posters etc for the purpose of understanding its meaning. But semiotics isn't just limited to visual media and things, it includes anything and everything. We can analyse anything, and anyone in Semiotics, just as long as it is visual and can be seen by everyone. 

Images and signs operate on different levels, depending on their context, and we only know it is what it is when the signified (word of the image/object) and signifier (image/object) meet together. It is only from then onwards that the coming together of the denotation and connotation makes sense to us, and alas, from that we draw upon our own conclusions.

Nintendo has a variety of ways in conveying their image to audiences and fans, to encourage them to buy video games consoles and games. And it is through advertising, both on TV and print, that they use numerous selling techniques, visual signs and codes to enable them to spread their message across, as well as to emphasize that Nintendo is about fun, enjoyment, and being happy, through the medium of gaming.